Writing in Tongues: Multilingual Books

A collection of languages by Daniel B. Dixon [English/numerous languages]
Rome, 1855

Some books compile examples of the world’s languages simply for the aesthetic value of the collection

Little is known about Dixon, a young native of Cincinnati who studied in Rome. He calls the study of languages “beautiful and interesting above all other studies,” and in this book he collects examples of dozens of languages, living and dead. In many cases he copies the Lord’s Prayer, while in others it seems that he does not understand the language and simply follows the lines of the script.

A collection of ancient & modern languages, Daniel B. Dixon (active 1855), Rome, 1855. (AARB 00020)

Revelation and Catholic Epistles edited by Joseph Juste Scaliger, Lodewijk de Dieu, and Edward Pococke [Greek/Latin/Syriac]
Leiden, 1627–1630

Early modern scholars sought out obscure translations of biblical texts and published them

The book of Revelation and some of the Catholic Epistles (2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude) were not considered canonical for many centuries in the Syriac Christian traditions. Nevertheless, scholars tracked down Syriac manuscripts of these books and published them. This edition includes the Syriac text along with a transliteration of the Syriac into Hebrew letters, the Greek original, and a Latin version.

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Revelation, edited by Joseph Juste Scaliger (1540–1609) and Lodewijk de Dieu (1590–1642); Catholic Epistles, edited by Edward Pococke (1604–1691). Leiden, 1627–1630. (AARB 00209)

Syriac-Latin dictionary by Giovanni Battista Ferrari [Syriac/Latin/etc.]
Rome, 1622

Some scholars use their books as an opportunity to show the breadth of their language skills

This book is a fairly straightforward Syriac-Latin dictionary. It is distinguished by the introductory section, in which Ferrari gathered dedicatory poems in honor of the work by various collaborators, including several Maronites who were studying in Rome. There are poems in Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, and Latin, showcasing the academic breadth of Ferrari’s scholarly circle as well as the variety of types available to the publisher, Stefano Paolini (d. 1640?).

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Nomenclator syriacus (Syriac wordbook), Giovanni Battista Ferrari (1584–1655), Rome, 1622. (AARB 00218)

Psalms, edited by Agostino Giustiniani [Arabic/Aramaic/Greek/Hebrew/Latin]
Genoa, 1516

Early modern scholars ambitiously collected numerous versions of biblical texts into single volumes

So-called “polyglot” Bibles required a wide array of language skills. This Psalter includes the text of the Psalms in the original Hebrew with versions in Arabic, Aramaic, and Greek, a Latin translation of each, and additional commentary in Latin. The page displayed here includes the first printed account of the voyages of Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, in its commentary on Psalm 19:4 (“to the end of the world”).

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Psalms, edited by Agostino Giustiniani (1470–1536), Genoa, 1516. (AARB 00237)

Refutation of the Qurʼan by Luigi Marracci [Arabic/Latin]
Padua, 1698

Some scholars interact with texts in other languages in order to refute them, especially if they come from another religious tradition

In the interest of refuting the claims of Islam’s sacred text, Marracci provides the full Arabic text of the Qurʼan along with a Latin translation and extensive notes. Despite Marracci’s polemical interests, his work represents a massive amount of research into the Qurʼanic text and the Islamic tradition, and his Latin translation was the basis for the influential 1734 English version of the Qurʼan by George Sale (1697?–1736).

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Refutatio Alcorani (Refutation of the Qurʼan), Luigi Marracci (1612–1700), Padua, 1698. (AARB 00289)

Hagiographies and prayers edited and translated by E.A. Wallis Budge [English/Geʻez]
London, 1900

Editions and translations make important texts available to people with varying levels of language skill

This book is one of several editions and translations that Budge produced from Geʻez manuscripts belonging to Lady Meux (1852–1910), a wealthy London socialite and collector. When Lady Meux died, she left these manuscripts in her will to Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889–1913) in an attempt to return them to Ethiopia, but the British courts intervened and the manuscripts were instead sold to American newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst (1863–1951).

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The miracles of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and the life of Ḥannâ (Saint Anne), and the magical prayers of 'Ahĕta Mîkâêl, edited and translated by E.A. Wallis Budge (1857–1934), London, 1900. (SJRB 00568)

Lectures on architecture [French/German/Latin]
18th century

Scholars interact with both classical languages and multiple vernaculars based on their scholarly networks

This is a handwritten compilation of lectures on architecture by an unknown scholar. Although the text is primarily in German, the author includes significant passages in Latin and French, demonstrating that they were interacting with both classical texts and more recent vernacular works, likely as part of a multilingual scholarly community. Diagrams convey important architectural terminology in multiple languages.

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Vorträge der Baukunst (Lectures on architecture), 18th century. (AARB 00036)

Depictions of the ruins of Rome by Giacomo Lauro [French/German/Italian/Latin]
Rome, 1612–1640

Texts in classical languages need to be explained for readers of multiple vernaculars

Lauro’s engravings of ancient Rome appear elsewhere in this exhibition with an Italian introduction. This version of the book does not include the introduction, but the Latin caption of each image is explained on the back of the page in Italian, German, and French, making it accessible for a wide community of readers.

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Antiquae urbis splendor (Splendor of the ancient city), Giacomo Lauro (active 1583–1645), Rome, 1612–1640. (AARB 00296)

Guide for calligraphy by Johann Braun [French/German]
Mulhouse, 1793

Calligraphers in multilingual communities need to be prepared to complete tasks in several languages

Mulhouse is a city in the border region of Alsace, now in France, which has long been home to significant numbers of both French and German speakers. Braun prepared this calligraphy guide to ensure that local practitioners of his art would be competent in both languages in order to serve their diverse clientele.

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Deutsche und französische Vorschriften (Exemplary scripts in German and French), Johann Braun (1717–1789), Mulhouse, 1793. (AARB 00299)

Turkish grammar by Muḥammad Ṭālib [Arabic/Ottoman Turkish]
Cairo, 1886

Multilingual communities require language learning resources to help people understand each other

In the 19th century, Egypt was technically part of the Ottoman Empire but largely functioned independently until it was brought under the control of the British Empire in 1882. Muḥammad Ṭālib was a prominent Turkish teacher in Cairo who prepared this grammar book. The text is entirely Turkish, indicating that he was not writing for beginners, but the Arabic title page suggests the primary language of most of his readers.

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Nuhbetüʼl-encâb fiʼl-lugatiʼt-Türkiyye (Elite of the nobles on the Turkish language), Muḥammad Ṭālib (active 1886), Cairo, 1886. (HMML 00593)

Treatises on law and theology [Arabic]
Kahramanmaraş (Turkey), 18th century

Interactions in diverse communities create new forms of expression that sometimes mix multiple languages

This manuscript includes numerous Arabic texts, most of them written by Muḥammad ibn Ḥamzah al-Kūzal Ḥiṣārī al-Āydīnī (active 1664–1710). One of these short works weighs in on a local custom in al-Āydīnī’s hometown of Aydın, now in southwestern Turkey. Residents of the region regularly combined the traditional Arabic greeting of Islam, al-salām ʻalaykum, with a Turkish phrase meaning “good morning,” creating a bilingual greeting.

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Miscellaneous treatises on law and theology, Kahramanmaraş (Turkey), 18th century.

Legal opinions by Qāsim al-Bandarī [Arabic/Ottoman Turkish]
Crete, 18th century

Legal rulings give us a window into the daily lives of people in other times and places

We know little about al-Bandarī’s life. He was a Muslim legal scholar who lived in Candia (now Ērakleion, Greece) on the island of Crete, and he compiled this collection of fatwas (legal opinions) in 1783. Written partially in Turkish and partially in Arabic, al-Bandarī answers legal questions that were on the minds of the people of Ottoman Crete, helping us understand the issues they were facing.

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Al-Wāqiʻāt al-kabīrah (Major cases), Qāsim al-Bandarī (active 1783), Crete, 18th century. (SJRB 00115)

Prayers [German with English]
Pont-à-Mousson (France), 1669

Modern collectors and sellers may explain the contents of a book in another language

This fragment from an unknown devotional book in German has been mounted on a sturdy backing to protect it and make it easier to display. Descriptive text in English has been added by the Foliophiles, an early 20th-century society of New York book enthusiasts who worked to market individual leaves of rare books and manuscripts for collectors. The tone of their text suggests this marketing goal.

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Prayers, Pont-à-Mousson (France), 1669. (AARB 00058)

Life of St. Benedict by Angelo Faggi [Latin with Italian]
Rome, 1587 and later

Text in a classical language may be explained or augmented by a later scribe in the vernacular

Faggi’s version of the life of St. Benedict is told in images accompanied by short poems in Latin. A later user of the book has added poems in Italian to the originally blank verso (rear) sides of the pages. These poems explain and reflect on the episodes depicted on the facing pages, bringing their lessons into the vernacular language of the book’s readers.

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Speculum et exemplar Christicolarum (Mirror and exemplar for Christians), Angelo Faggi (1500–1593), Rome, 1587 and later. (AARB 00281)

Qurʼan [Arabic with Uzbek]
Central Asia, 19th century

Fragments of different books are sometimes bound together by later owners

Someone has inserted the first page of an early 20th-century printed book inside the front cover of this Qurʼan manuscript. The title page tells us that the print book is an Uzbek version of the epic tale of Jamshīd, a legendary king of ancient Iran. It was printed in Tashkent using the Arabic alphabet, which was the normal way of writing Uzbek before the Soviet period.

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Qurʼan, Central Asia, 19th century. (HMML 00021)

Qurʼan [Arabic with French/Armenian]
Hārar, 1724

Miscellaneous items sometimes make their way into books as bookmarks or for safe keeping

This Qurʼan manuscript was almost certainly copied in Hārar, the historic Islamic intellectual center of the Horn of Africa, now in eastern Ethiopia. The growing influence of Europe in modern Ethiopia is shown in an advertising card (see next image) that was later placed in the book. The card advertizes Matik Kevorkoff’s tobacco company, with text in French and Armenian. Kevorkoff was an Armenian businessman who settled in Addis Ababa at the end of the 19th century and established an Armenian school.

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Qurʼan, Hārar, 1724. (HMML 00564)

Qurʼan [Arabic with French/Armenian]
Hārar, 1724

Miscellaneous items sometimes make their way into books as bookmarks or for safe keeping

Advertising card for Matik Kevorkoff’s tobacco company with text in French and Armenian. Kevorkoff was an Armenian businessman who settled in Addis Ababa at the end of the 19th century and established an Armenian school. Found in Qurʼan manuscript (previous image)

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Qurʼan, Hārar, 1724. (HMML 00564)

Fragments with paintings [Arabic/Persian]
India, 18th century and later

Books are reused for various purposes, sometimes having little to do with their original contents

This may look like an original leaf from an elaborately decorated manuscript in the South Asian style. In fact the painting was added later by someone who found existing scraps of manuscript text and painted unrelated images directly over the words, portions of which are still visible. This was likely done to create a marketable item for a tourist who could not read the text anyway.

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Various fragments with paintings, India, 18th century and later. (SJRB 00103)

Liturgical chants with historical and biblical undertexts [Georgian/Syriac]
Mount Sinai, 10th century and earlier

The reuse of writing materials is an ancient phenomenon and creates manuscripts known as palimpsests

When HMML acquired this manuscript, it was identified as an early modern fragment in Armenian. It is now known to be a 10th-century fragment in Georgian. It is a palimpsest, meaning that earlier Syriac texts were scraped off (twice!) so that the parchment could be reused. New technology such as multispectral imaging helps us read and identify the older undertexts, which may go back as early as the 5th century.

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Liturgical chants; History of the monks of Syria, by Theodoret of Cyrrhus (393–496); Gospel of Matthew. Mount Sinai, 10th century and earlier. (HMML 00654)

Deuteronomy [Hebrew with English]
Nablus, 19th century

Notes by later owners give us valuable information about the history of manuscripts and other items

This is a fragment of the Samaritan version of the Pentateuch. The language is Hebrew, but the alphabet is unique to the Samaritans, whose historic center is modern Nablus in the West Bank. The manuscript is likely a recent copy, but the purchasers may have believed that it was ancient. An English note explains that a high price was paid for the fragment, primarily in “arrack” (liquor).

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Deuteronomy, Nablus, 19th century. (HMML 00650)